Salt, Spores and Science Timaru's and TGHS's Bella MacCallum in the Thick of Flax

By Roselyn Fauth

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Illustration from the book: Mary R. S. Creese and Thomas M. Creese, Ladies in the Laboratory III: South African, Australian, New Zealand, and Canadian Women in Science: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Scarecrow Press, 2010), p. 113. Read on line here

 

Have you ever looked at harakeke flax and wondered what stories it might hold? As well as cloaks and ropes, there’s a fascinating scientific yarn of cells and salt and structure, of a young woman, notebook in hand, curiously studying a wetland. I hadn’t, not until I read about Bella Dytes MacIntosh MacCallum, the first woman in New Zealand to earn a Doctor of Science. Born in Timaru in 1886, she attended Timaru Girls’ High School, then Canterbury College, earning a BA in 1908 and an MA in 1909 with First Class Honours in botany, focusing on halophyte plant adaptations to salty soil. She went on to become a British botanist and mycologist, breaking new ground for women in science.

Harekeke Flax Plant Photography By Geoff Cloake

Harakeke (Flax) Photography By Geoff Cloake

She was awarded a National Research Scholarship and used it to continue her wetland plant studies. After teaching at high schools, she completed her doctorate from the University of New Zealand in 1917 with a thesis on Phormium (New Zealand flax), titled Phormium with Regard to Its Economic Importance — a work she began in 1909 with guidance from Dr Leonard Cockayne. Her research was one of the first major scientific studies to link the biology of flax to its economic and industrial uses, helping to bridge traditional knowledge and modern science.

Why hadn’t I heard of her? She sounds amazing... she is a reminder that when education is accessible to everyone, talent and curiosity can take someone anywhere, no matter where they start. I think she is so outstanding, that we should nominate her for Timaru's Hall of Fame!

I think Bella is so outstanding that we should nominate her for Timaru’s Hall of Fame. Her story shows girls today that curiosity and determination can lead to discoveries that matter. Her work on New Zealand flax connected our local plants to global science, proving that contributions from a small place can change how the world understands and uses its resources. Science moves forward because of people like Bella, and her example can inspire the next generation to explore, question and create.

I was struck by how deeply her story is rooted in South Canterbury. Her research was literally in our back yard, flax wetlands, local mills, Timaru Girls’ High School, and it made me realise that this is exactly what the New Zealand Curriculum is aiming for with place-based learning and local curriculum design.

When we bring local history, culture and environment into science, social sciences and technology, students can see how what they are learning connects to where they live. It makes learning feel real, builds pride in community and shows how big achievements can grow from small places.

Here's my blog on why she is awesome!

Looking North over Timaru Photography By Geoff Cloake

Looking North over Timaru - Photography By Geoff Cloake

She was an early mycologist and bacteriologist at a time when fungi were barely understood, was a Timaru Girls High Student who went on to become the first woman in New Zealand awarded a Doctor of Science for her thesis on Phormium tenax (NZ flax), titled "Phormium with Regard to Its Economic Importance"

Bella Cross was born in Timaru to George and Rebecca Cross 1886. She attended Timaru Girls’ High School on Cain Street, then went on to Canterbury College, where she earned first-class honours in botany. In 1909, her master's research focused on halophytes, which are plants that thrive in salty soils, and this work was later extended with the support of a National Research Scholarship. By 1917, she had become the first woman in New Zealand to be awarded a Doctor of Science (DSc) for her study on the microscopic structure and industrial potential of Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax. At a time when most girls were expected to keep house rather than keep lab notes, Bella carved a new path in science. She later continued her studies in the United Kingdom at Cambridge Medical School and the University of Edinburgh.

Keep in mind, it wasn't until 1950s that Agricultural colleges (Massey and Canterbury) incorporated microbiology into studies on plant diseases. The Plant Diseases Division of DSIR expanded into viruses, fungi, and bacterial plant pathogens. In 1954, Margaret di Menna became the first New Zealand woman to earn a PhD in microbiology (Otago), focusing on human body yeasts.

Bella's 197-page thesis was titled “Phormium with Regard to Its Economic Importance”, focusing on native New Zealand flax (Phormium). This work examined the potential uses and commercial value of the plant, a subject she had been investigating since her 1909 master’s research under the mentorship of Dr. Leonard Cockayne. It looked at the economic potential and practical applications, making it one of New Zealand’s earliest comprehensive scientific studies of a native resource. She concluded that there was great potential, particularly through selective breeding to improve fibre quality, understanding plant variability and ecological requirements and applying scientific techniques to what had previously been a cottage or colonial industry.

Harekeke Flax at Patiti Point Roselyn Fauth 2025 detail

Phormium tenax (harakeke), commonly known as New Zealand flax, has been a vital plant for Māori communities for centuries. Valued as a taonga species, it was used for weaving cloaks, baskets, mats, ropes, and fishing gear, with different cultivars carefully selected for specific purposes. Māori also used harakeke medicinally and practiced sustainable harvesting techniques that reflected deep ecological knowledge. With European colonisation, the plant gained commercial interest for its strong fibres, leading to the rise of flax milling in the 19th century. Māori traded dressed harakeke (flax) with visiting sealers and whalers, who valued the strong fibre for rope and rigging. This exchange gave Māori access to European goods like tools and muskets, and laid the foundation for flax’s role in New Zealand’s early colonial economy, particularly around coastal hubs like Foveaux Strait, Otago, and Banks Peninsula. Harakeke fibre was exported for use in ropes, sacks, and matting, but the industry was hampered by inconsistent quality, labour-intensive processing, and competition from imported fibres like jute and hemp. Commercial rot-resistant flax exports from Māori communities began in late 1820s, with Sydney vessels such as the Elizabeth (1829) and Vittoria (1831) collecting flax from the Canterbury region and by the early 1830s, flax and timber were regular commodities alongside whale oil from shore stations like those on Otago and South Canterbury coasts.

Canterbury (including South Canterbury) had several flax mills

  • Early mills in South Canterbury: By the early 1870s, flax mills were operating near Orari, Kakahu, and Milford, processing harakeke collected by Māori and Pākehā into export fibre.

  • Regional boom: Canterbury province had around 24 flax mills with approximately 50 stripping machines by 1870, accounting for one-third of New Zealand’s total flax fibre output—over 1,500 tons .

  • Halswell and Kaiapoi names: Significant mills included the steam-powered factories at Halswell and Kaiapoi (though slightly north of South Canterbury), setting the engineering benchmarks for the region .

  • Decline after early 1890s: Many mills faltered due to high costs and fluctuating fibre prices. A parliamentary-style Canterbury Flax Association, formed in 1870, saw success initially but eventually couldn't prevent the industry's decline.

 

Labour-intensive processing and uneven fibre quality made it uncompetitive with imported fibres like jute, hemp, and later synthetics. The flax industry boomed briefly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, especially for rope and matting, but declined sharply after WWI. By the mid-20th century, most flax mills had closed, and the industry was largely replaced by synthetic alternatives and cheaper imports. Today, harakeke is valued more for its cultural and ecological role, important in Māori weaving traditions, wetland restoration, and native landscaping—than for industrial uses.

After completing her DSc on Phormium tenax, Bella shifted focus from plants to fungi. She studied wood-staining fungi, moulds, and bacteria in both Cambridge and Edinburgh, where she worked on important problems like the deterioration of timber and the microbial life of decaying wood — topics now seen as part of forest ecology, biodegradation, and even climate resilience.

Bella’s pioneering research on wood-staining fungi revealed how specific fungal species, such as Ceratostomella piceae, caused blue-rot in pine timber by entering through bark-beetle tunnels. Her detailed microscopic studies mapped the fungi’s life cycle and their impact on sapwood, offering crucial insights for forestry and timber preservation. By linking fungal infection to structural damage in wood, Bella laid early groundwork for forest pathology and timber protection — showing how invisible organisms could have significant economic and ecological consequences.

The clearing of flax and bush not only transformed the landscape but also prompted new understandings of the need for shelter and biodiversity. Settlers eventually responded by planting European and Australian trees to restore environmental stability and enhance agricultural productivity. Today, while flax is no longer an industrial crop in Temuka, it remains a cultural and ecological treasure, symbolising both the transformation and the resilience of the region's natural heritage.

 

Bella was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society in 1921

 

Timaru Girls High School South Canterbury Museum 200910801

Timaru Girls High School around c1915 with girls posted in groups in front of the main school building. South Canterbury Museum 2009/108.01. The schools motto is Motto, Scientia Potestas Est (knowledge is power) as a common seal. This was taken from FrancisBacon’s “Religious Meditation’ 1597. It opened for lessons on Monday 2 February 1880 as a co-educational secondary school located on Cain and Hassall Streets. The day saw 35 girls and 28 boys. (Aged from 13 to 19 years old). Classes were to begin at 10am and finish at 4pm. The first school building constructed in 1880 for the considerable sum of 4 448 pounds by Mr James Gore of Dunedin.  Following a major fire in 1898, if officially split into two single-sex schools on the same site, with girls remaining at the original location. In 1913 Timaru Boys' High School moved to North Street. The school role was 76 years at the start of 1914. The boarding hostel was added by 1920 to support rural students. Miss Mary McLean Principal for the Girls. She had been a student of the school in the past. The first Boarding House was established in a rented house, 100North Street, known as ”Croomlea”. The house had been owned by Andrew MCKay. The first women to graduate from the School both studied medicine; Dr Elizabeth Gunn (Otago University) and Dr A Balfour from (Edinburgh University). Post WWII saw a massive increase in roll and the buildings that were added to site were constructed. A lot of these buildings are buildings that we still have on site. Martins Field was nambed after AC Martin, who was the School Board Secetary for many years. In 1963, Timaru Girls’ High School became the largest girl's school in The South Island  with a Roll of 771. (Source Timaru Girls High Archives)

 

After the war, she left for Britain. Cambridge. Edinburgh. Mycology. Bacteriology. Wood-staining fungi. All those words you half-remember from Year 11 science. Bella was studying them. Mastering them. Publishing them. Teaching them.

She was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society. That’s a big deal, because as I understand, scientific societies weren’t throwing open the doors to colonial women back then. 

What’s strange is how little she’s remembered in Timaru, but when you look online, you’ll find more about her husband, Sir Peter MacCallum who was a pathologist and name lives on in Melbourne’s cancer centre.

The MacCallum's moved to Australia in 1924. Peter accepted the position of chair of pathology for the University of Melbourne.

She married twice. Lost her first husband Lancelot Shadwell Jennings in the First World War. Had three daughters with her second husband Peter MacCullum. She died in Melbourne in 1927 during childbirth of her third child Bella. She must have been around 41-42 years old.

I sat with that for a while, that's pretty much my age now. Imagine that. She was a woman who broke through scientific glass ceilings with mud on her boots and a microscopic lens looking for things we don't usually pay much attention to. 

I imagine Bella walking along the edge of Washdyke Lagoon. Maybe she’d been warned not to “get ideas.” Maybe she didn’t listen. Maybe her teachers gave her the quiet nods of encouragement that girls sometimes notice more than praise. I think of the sting of grief after losing her first husband, Lance. A tennis champ, a soldier, gone in France. I wonder if research gave her a way to hold steady?

I picture her later in Edinburgh rubbing shoulders with serious men. Would she have felt out of place? Or right at home among the spores and samples? And then I think of her daughters. Did they know how remarkable their mother was? 

 

She proved women could lead in scientific research... and opened a door.

I was a TGHS lass too, and its pretty awesome to think that a public education like me, and Bella hasn't held us back. It gave us the toolbox to be curious, caring and learn how to teach ourselves, and find answers. Bella earned a DSc, published in academic journals, and was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London — the same society that once debated Darwin’s theories.

Next time you’re walking past the flax, maybe near Saltwater Creek or Waitarakao Washdyke Lagoon, think what Bella might have seen and what brilliance she saw beneath the leaves.

Her studies on how such plants adapt to harsh conditions helped lay the groundwork for what we’d now call plant ecology, a vital field in the age of climate change, rising sea levels, and habitat degradation. 

Her doctoral thesis on Phormium tenax (harakeke) went beyond botany for its own sake. She examined its anatomical structure and industrial potential — asking how it might be better cultivated, processed, or used. Harakeke was a staple of both Māori use and the settler economy. Bella's work contributed to a clearer scientific understanding of a plant that shaped textiles, rope-making, and export income.

Bella’s work helped us understand how native plants adapt to tough conditions, how traditional resources like flax could evolve in modern economy, how fungi interact with our buildings and forests, how women could make scientific breakthroughs despite social limits

She was linking science with industry, heritage with modernity.  Today, we know fungi are central to everything from forest health to pharmaceutical development. Bella was among the first to shine a light on their role.

 

Bella Dytes Macintosh MacCallum

Date of Birth
21 July 1886 in Timaru, New Zealand (some sources give 1887)

Parents
George Cross and Rebecca Cross (née Dytes)

Married
Married Lancelot Shadwell Jennings in 1915; widowed in 1916. Married Dr Peter MacCallum in 1919.

Died
24 April 1927 in Melbourne, Australia, during childbirth of her third daughter.

Education
Attended Timaru Girls’ High School.
Graduated BA from Canterbury University College in 1908, Senior Scholar in Botany.
Graduated MA with First Class Honours in Botany in 1909, with a thesis on the leaf anatomy of New Zealand halophytes.
Awarded a National Research Scholarship to continue botanical research.
Earned a Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) from the University of New Zealand in 1917 (or 1919), becoming the first woman in New Zealand to receive this degree.

Achievements
Pioneering New Zealand botanist, mycologist, and bacteriologist.
Her doctoral thesis Phormium with Regard to Its Economic Importance was one of the earliest comprehensive scientific studies of harakeke (New Zealand flax), linking plant anatomy, ecology, and industrial application.
Studied under Dr Leonard Cockayne and carried out significant research in South Canterbury wetland areas such as Washdyke Lagoon.
Appointed Assistant Lecturer in Botany at the University of Edinburgh in 1920.
Conducted groundbreaking research on wood-staining fungi, contributing to the understanding of forest pathology and timber preservation.
Elected Fellow of the Linnean Society of London in 1921, an exceptional honour for a colonial woman scientist of her time.
Published in academic journals in both New Zealand and the United Kingdom.

General
Born and raised in Timaru, Bella’s early work was deeply tied to South Canterbury’s natural environment and the harakeke trade’s cultural and economic heritage.
She was also an accomplished tennis player, winning multiple New Zealand university championships.
After losing her first husband in World War I, she continued her scientific career in Britain, later marrying Australian pathologist Peter MacCallum.
In Melbourne, she balanced family life with continued interest in science until her untimely death at the age of 40.
Her legacy endures as an early trailblazer for women in STEM and as a scientist whose work remains relevant to ecology, industry, and cultural heritage today.

Fun Facts about Bella MacCallum

  • Born Bella Dytes Cross in Timaru in 1886 to George and Rebecca Cross (née Dytes)

  • Her middle name “Dytes” came from her mother’s family, linking her to early Timaru settlers

  • Attended Timaru Girls’ High School — the same school still inspiring girls in science today

  • Loved sport — was in the TGHS hockey 1st XI and represented Canterbury College in tennis, winning championships

  • Served on the Canterbury College Students’ Association Executive, showing leadership as well as academic and sporting ability

  • One of the first women from South Canterbury to study science at university

  • Completed BA (1908) and MA with First Class Honours in Botany (1909) at Canterbury College

  • Researched halophytes — plants that thrive in salty soil — often at local sites like Washdyke Lagoon

  • Inspired and mentored by Dr Leonard Cockayne, one of New Zealand’s leading botanists

  • Awarded a National Research Scholarship to continue wetland plant studies

  • Worked as a high school science teacher before embarking on her doctoral research

  • In 1912, she and future husband Lance Jennings won all five tennis championships at the New Zealand University Tournament between them

  • First woman in New Zealand to earn a Doctor of Science (DSc) in 1917 from the University of New Zealand

  • Doctoral thesis on Phormium (New Zealand flax) connected plant anatomy to industrial fibre use, bridging traditional knowledge and modern science

  • Carried out fieldwork in heavy skirts and boots, trekking through muddy wetlands with notebooks and samples

  • Married fellow scientist and tennis champion Lance Jennings in 1915 — he was killed in WWI in 1916

  • After Jennings’ death, Bella prepared his scientific research notes for posthumous publication

  • Married Professor Peter MacCallum in 1919 at St Giles’ Cathedral, Edinburgh

  • Studied bacteriology at Cambridge Medical School before becoming Assistant Lecturer in Botany at the University of Edinburgh in 1920

  • Published influential research on timber-staining fungi, contributing to forest pathology and timber preservation

  • Elected Fellow of the Linnean Society of London in 1921 — a rare honour for a colonial-born woman scientist

  • Moved to Melbourne when her husband was appointed Chair of Pathology at the University of Melbourne

  • Balanced scientific work with raising three daughters

  • Died in 1927 in Melbourne at age 40 after giving birth to her third child, also named Bella

  • The complete 197-page typescript of her doctoral thesis is held at Te Papa Tongarewa, the Museum of New Zealand

  • Her flax research is still cited internationally in studies on plant biology and industrial fibres

  • Featured in the Royal Society Te Apārangi’s “150 Women in 150 Words” project in 2017

  • The Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre in Melbourne, named for her husband, is now one of the world’s top cancer research institutions — but Bella’s own pioneering science is lesser known

  • Despite all her achievements, she has no public memorial in Timaru — yet

 

 

After reading about Blella I have a heap of questions.

  • How might Bella’s story inspire girls in science today?
  • How did harakeke shape both Māori and colonial economies?
  • Why might we not know her name despite her achievements?
  • How did Bella’s education help her succeed despite social barriers?
  • What can her research on flax teach us about local environment and sustainability today?
  • How does harakeke connect science, culture, and economy?
  • Why do role models like Bella matter for girls in STEM now?
  • What can Bella’s research teach us about climate and ecology today?
  • Why is it important to tell local stories like Bella’s in schools?

 

What I learned from Bella MacCallum and her story

Finding Bella Dytes MacIntosh MacCallum’s story felt like stumbling across a hidden gem in Timaru’s history. She’s proof of what public education can do. From Timaru Girls’ High School, she went on to become the first woman in New Zealand to earn a Doctor of Science. It’s a reminder that when education is accessible to everyone, talent and curiosity can take someone anywhere, no matter where they start.

Her story also showed me how much representation matters. Over a hundred years ago, a young woman from right here in my hometown was excelling in science. Seeing that makes me think about how important it is for today’s girls to know that science is for them too. We have to keep encouraging women into STEM and leadership, because those role models can change lives.

I was struck by how deeply Bella’s story is rooted in South Canterbury. Her research was literally in our back yard — flax wetlands, local mills, Timaru Girls’ High School. When we connect learning to local history and landscapes, it suddenly feels more real and meaningful.

Her doctorate on harakeke (New Zealand flax) was about more than plant biology. It tied science to industry, culture, and everyday life. It made me think about how powerful it is to connect different areas of learning, and how important it is to weave mātauranga Māori into science education. That’s where you get depth, context, and cultural relevance.

Bella’s early ecological work also feels so timely now. In an age of climate change and biodiversity loss, her research reminds me that understanding our environment has always been essential knowledge — and it’s even more urgent today.

What really stays with me is how easily a life like hers can fade from public memory. Without a chance mention in another project, I might never have heard of her. History doesn’t remember by accident. It remembers because people choose to keep telling the story. I think Bella deserves a memorial in Timaru and a spot in the Hall of Fame — not just to remember her, but to inspire the next generation of scientists, inventors, and curious minds.

 

Top Facts on Bella

  • Born Bella Dytes Cross in Timaru in 1886 to George and Rebecca Cross (née Dytes)
  • Middle name connects to one of Timaru’s early settler families
  • Played hockey for Timaru Girls’ High School 1st XI and won tennis championships at Canterbury College
  • Served on the Canterbury College Students’ Association Executive
  • Graduated BA in 1908 and MA with First Class Honours in Botany in 1909
  • Researched halophytes (plants that thrive in salty soils) at local sites like Washdyke Lagoon
  • Mentored by Dr Leonard Cockayne, one of New Zealand’s leading botanists
  • Awarded a National Research Scholarship for further wetland plant studies
  • Worked as a high school science teacher before starting her doctorate
  • With fiancé Lance Jennings, won all five tennis championships at the 1912 New Zealand University Tournament
  • First woman in New Zealand to earn a Doctor of Science in 1917
  • Doctoral thesis on Phormium linked plant anatomy to industrial fibre use
  • Carried out fieldwork in muddy wetlands wearing heavy skirts and boots
  • Married Lance Jennings in 1915; widowed the next year during WWI
  • Prepared Jennings’ scientific notes for publication after his death
  • Married Professor Peter MacCallum in 1919 at St Giles’ Cathedral in Edinburgh
  • Studied bacteriology at Cambridge and became Assistant Lecturer in Botany at the University of Edinburgh in 1920
  • Published research on timber-staining fungi; elected Fellow of the Linnean Society in 1921
  • Moved to Melbourne when Peter became Chair of Pathology at the University of Melbourne
  • Balanced science with raising three daughters
  • Died in 1927 at age 40 after giving birth to her third child
  • Her 197-page doctoral thesis is held at Te Papa Tongarewa in Wellington
  • Her flax research is still cited internationally
  • Featured in the Royal Society TeApārangi’s “150 Women in 150 Words” in 2017
  • Her husband’s name lives on in the Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, one of the world’s top cancer hospitals, but her own achievements are still not widely known
  • No public memorial for her exists in Timaru — yet

 

 

Bella Dytes Macintosh McCallum (née Cross) Early Life and Education

  • July 1887: Born in Timaru, New Zealand.

  • 8 February 1898: Enrolled Timaru Girls' High School (TGHS)
    (Last school: T.M.S. St. V ’97 (Standard 5, 1897)
    Parent’s name and address: Mr G. Cross, “The Park”, Timaru
    Signature on page: Miss M. J. McLean, M.A., Headmistress

    1903: Awarded Dux at TGHS 

    1904: Matriculated on Junior University Scholarship papers.
    - From the Timaru Girls High Archives - Thank you Pamela Gibson - Voluntary Archivist.

  • 1905: First term at Canterbury College, credited in Latin and Biology. 
    Matriculated with credit on Junior University Scholarship Examination.
    Awarded Normal School Exhibition.

  • 1908: Graduated B.A. from Canterbury University College; Senior Scholar in Botany.

  • 1909: Graduated M.A. with First Class Honours in Botany.
    Her thesis focused on life-forms and leaf anatomy of New Zealand halophytes in Christchurch and Timaru.

Scientific Research and Early Contributions

  • August 1909: Began research on New Zealand flax (Phormium), inspired by Dr Leonard Cockayne.

  • 1910–1911: Conducted detailed investigations into flax; results formed a substantial thesis lodged at the Dominion Museum (now Te Papa), titled Investigations on Phormium With Regard to the Improvement and its Economic Importance.

  • 1911: Published an abstract of her flax research in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.

Academic and Athletic Achievements

  • 1912: Alongside her future husband, Lancelot Jennings, Bella won all five tennis championships offered at the New Zealand university level.

  • 1915: Married Lancelot Shadwell Jennings, a fellow biologist (M.Sc. 1911), army officer, and tennis champion.

  • 1916: Lancelot Jennings killed in action during World War I. Bella later prepared his scientific notes for posthumous publication.

Doctoral and International Academic Work

  • 1917: (or possibly 1919, per conflicting sources) – Awarded a Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) by Canterbury University College. Likely the first New Zealand woman to receive this degree.

  • 1919: Traveled to Europe on a complimentary Orient Steamship Company ticket; completed a short course in bacteriology at Cambridge.

  • 1920–1921: Appointed Assistant Lecturer in Botany at the University of Edinburgh.

  • 1920: Published Some Wood-Staining Fungi, a paper referenced by Hight and Candy, though its current location is unknown.

Later Life and Recognition

  • 25 August 1919: Married Professor Peter MacCallum at St Giles’s Church (Cathedral) in Edinburgh, using the forms of the Church of Scotland

  • 1927: Died.

Legacy

  • One of New Zealand’s first women to earn a D.Sc.

  • Recognized among early New Zealand husband-and-wife scientific collaborators.

  • Significant early contributor to the botanical and economic study of New Zealand flax.

  • Represented a generation of academically accomplished and publicly engaged women in science during the early 20th century.

 

Harekeke Flax at Patiti Point Roselyn Fauth 2025

Harekeke Flax at Patiti Point  - Roselyn Fauth 2025

 

Side Quest: Did her marriage impact her career?

While reading about Bella, I learned that before the 1940s many women teachers in New Zealand (and in Britain and Australia) were required to resign once they married. This “marriage bar” policy was based on the idea that married women should focus on home life, and that jobs should be reserved for single women or men. In New Zealand, the marriage bar for women teachers was officially in place in various forms until 1948.

Bella worked as a high school science teacher before completing her DSc, and she later held an academic post at the University of Edinburgh after marrying her second husband in 1919. This makes me wonder — did she avoid the marriage bar because she was working in Britain in a university role rather than a school? Or did her academic position rely on her husband’s location and connections?

We know she left formal university work after moving to Melbourne in the early 1920s, where she had three young daughters in quick succession. It’s possible social expectations, the marriage bar in schools, and the demands of family life all combined to limit her ability to take up formal research or teaching posts in Australia. But we can also imagine her continuing to follow science informally — reading, discussing, and perhaps contributing behind the scenes to her husband’s work — as many married women scientists did at the time.

 

Side Quest: Who was Peter MacCullum

Sir Peter MacCallum (1885–1974) was a Scottish-born professor of pathology whose career and public service left a lasting mark on medical education and cancer treatment in Australia. Born on 14 July 1885 at Maryhill, Glasgow, to Peter McCallum, a master grocer, and Annie Morrison, he emigrated with his family to New Zealand in 1886, where his father became branch manager of the Singer Sewing Machine Co. in Christchurch. After attending local state schools, he left at age 12 to work in an ironmonger’s store, but ill health prompted his return to study. Scholarships took him to Christ’s College and Canterbury College, where he gained a B.Sc. (1907), M.Sc. (1908), and M.A. (1909), along with an exhibition in biology and Blues in athletics and rugby. Determined to study medicine, he saved enough to travel to Scotland in 1910, working his passage as a coal-trimmer, and entered the University of Edinburgh (M.B., Ch.B., 1914), graduating with first-class honours in most subjects and winning prizes in three. He again earned Blues in athletics and rugby, though he narrowly missed being capped for Scotland.

After six months in general practice, MacCallum joined the Royal Army Medical Corps Special Reserve on 17 March 1915 as a lieutenant, and was promoted to captain that October. Serving on the Western Front, he was awarded the Military Cross, twice mentioned in dispatches, and gassed in 1918. While on home leave in New Zealand he became engaged to Bella Dytes Jennings (née Cross), a widow and Doctor of Science. They were married on 25 August 1919 at St Giles’s Church, Edinburgh, under the forms of the Church of Scotland. Both secured academic posts—he as a lecturer in pathology, she in botany—and he was appointed clinical pathologist at the Royal Infirmary. He also undertook research at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, where he was later made a member (1934) and fellow (1953), and earned a diploma of public health in 1923.

In 1924 MacCallum accepted the chair of pathology at the University of Melbourne, where he revitalised the department, encouraged research, and held significant administrative roles. He served as dean of the Faculty of Medicine (1939–43, 1947–50), chairman of the professorial board (1944–46), and a long-standing member of university council. He supported the relocation of the Melbourne Hospital closer to the university and championed a new medical school. During the Second World War, he was temporary lieutenant colonel and director of pathology at Army Headquarters in Melbourne, raised and commanded the Medical Wing of the Melbourne University Rifles, and contributed to chemical warfare research committees. In 1945 he chaired the Victorian Committee for Post-War Reconstruction, helping ex-service personnel resume or begin university studies, and in 1946 he advised on establishing a medical school in Western Australia.

MacCallum’s influence extended beyond the university. He was a foundation fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians (1938), chaired the Australian National Research Council (1948–51), the Australian Red Cross Society (1951–58), and the College of Dentistry (1941–63), and was president of the Victorian branch of the British Medical Association (1946). Most notably, he chaired the Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria (1946–63), leading the creation of the Victorian Cancer Institute in 1949, whose out-patient sections were named the Peter MacCallum Clinic the following year. This centre became one of the world’s leading cancer treatment and research facilities, later renamed the Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute in 1986.

Following Bella’s death in 1927, MacCallum married Ursula Lillie Grace in 1928; she died in 1941. In 1946 he married his former secretary, Frieda Maud Davies, who died in 1953. Knighted in 1953, MacCallum remained active in academic and public life, travelling internationally, visiting China and Japan in 1957, and enjoying golf, walking, and sailing. Admired for his probity, generosity, and sense of fun, he was respected for his sound judgement and ability to influence others. Survived by the three daughters of his first marriage and the son of his second, he died on 4 March 1974 at Kew, Victoria, and was cremated. Portraits by Max Meldrum (University of Melbourne) and Paul Fitzgerald (Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute) commemorate his legacy.

 

Side Quest: Was a clinic named after Peter?

Yes. The out-patient section of the newly formed Victorian Cancer Institute was named the Peter MacCallum Clinic in 1950, honouring Sir Peter’s leadership as chairman of the Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria and his work to establish a dedicated cancer treatment and research facility. Over time, this clinic grew into one of the world’s foremost cancer centres. In 1986, it became the Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute—today known simply as Peter Mac—and since 2016 has been housed in the Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre building at 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne.

Peter Mac is special because it is Australia’s only public hospital devoted exclusively to cancer, combining patient care, research, and education in one place. Its integrated approach means that scientists and clinicians work side by side, ensuring new discoveries move quickly from the lab to the bedside. It delivers everything from early detection to advanced treatments like precision medicine and immunotherapy, and trains future cancer specialists. This centre continues Sir Peter’s vision that the best science and most compassionate care should be available to every cancer patient, regardless of their circumstances.

 

Side Quest: Was Captain Cook’s first botanical records of Phormium (1769), cited from Joseph Banks’ notes?

Māori have traditionally used the strong inner fibres of harakeke (New Zealand flax), known as muka, for weaving ropes, cloaks, baskets, and mats—skills deeply rooted in Māori culture. From the 1790s, European whalers and traders began valuing muka for rope and sail-making, leading to a flourishing flax trade with Māori. By the early 1900s, flax had become one of New Zealand’s major exports, making up nearly 5% of its trade value.

Timaru played a key role in this early trade network. The whaling ship Caroline was recorded carrying flax and other goods to Sydney in 1830, and the Weller Brothers established a whaling station at Caroline Bay in 1839. The bay’s name may have come from one of several ships named Caroline, or possibly from Queen Caroline of Brunswick, a popular British royal figure of the early 19th century. The flax trade helped integrate Timaru into global commerce and remains a significant part of both local and national heritage.

Lance Jennings

By Unknown author - http://www.aucklandmuseum.com/war-memorial/online-cenotaph/record/C7709, Public Domain

In 1915, MacCallum married Lance (Lancelot) Shadwell Jennings, and became known as Bella Jennings. Both were tennis champions and researchers. Captain Jennings was killed on 15 September 1916 at the Western Front, aged 23. In 1919, she married Peter MacCallum at St Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh. She had three daughters from her second marriage.

 

Side Quest: What was Robert Edgar Cuthbert Shaw connected to the Wartime Flax Industry?

Robert Edgar Cuthbert Shaw JP dedicated over 30 years of his life to the linen flax industry in South Canterbury. During the Second World War, Shaw managed the Fairlie flax factory, which produced linen flax fibre vital for the British war effort. The fibre was used to manufacture covering cloth for aircraft such as Spitfires and Hurricanes, as well as parachutes and fire hoses. Shaw also supervised the local growing of flax and oversaw a workforce that included many young women under wartime manpower regulations.

After the war, Shaw continued his involvement as manager of the Geraldine flax factory, working to maintain flax as a peace-time industry. His career reflects the final chapter of flax as a commercial crop in the region, highlighting its brief but significant wartime revival. Shaw's contribution also underscores the role of individual leadership in sustaining rural industry and community life in mid-20th century Canterbury.

- Obituary: MR R E C Shaw (09 Apr 1985). Aoraki Heritage Collection, accessed 18/06/2025, https://aorakiheritage.recollect.co.nz/nodes/view/3208

 

The factory employed many young women, who were assigned to flax production under wartime manpower regulations. These women were required to live and work where directed, and a hostel was established to house them during their employment.

While Bella MacCallum’s name and contributions shine through the historical record, the many women who worked in South Canterbury’s flax industry during wartime remain unnamed. At the Fairlie flax factory, dozens of young women laboured under manpower regulations—living in hostels, adapting to factory life, and helping produce fibres critical to the war effort. Their names rarely appear in archives or articles, yet their work was essential. It’s a quiet reminder of how much women contributed, often invisibly, to local and national industry. Perhaps among the families of South Canterbury, someone still remembers their mother or grandmother’s time in the flax sheds. I think their stories, like Bella’s, deserve to be known.

 

From Flax Clad Swamp to Thriving Township 00002 54 42

From flax-clad swamp to thriving township (21 Feb 1979). Aoraki Heritage Collection, accessed 18/06/2025, https://aorakiheritage.recollect.co.nz/nodes/view/1211

 

Side Quest: Was is the Flax Story of Temuka?

Temuka's early transformation from a swampy, flax-covered wilderness to a thriving township was deeply rooted in the presence and clearing of native vegetation, especially harakeke (New Zealand flax). In 1859, the area was dominated by flax, ti-tree, and swamp, forming the natural landscape before European settlement. Māori had long used harakeke for weaving and cordage, and early European settlers also recognised its value. As land was surveyed and subdivided from 1858 onward, first by the government at Arowhenua and then by private settlers like Samuel Hewlings and the Rhodes Brothers, flax gave way to farmland and timber extraction.

The region's development led to the widespread destruction of native bush and flaxlands, accelerated by devastating fires such as the one in 1863 that swept through Arowhenua Bush. While flax contributed to early industry and economy, particularly in rural Canterbury where flax mills later appeared, in Temuka it was primarily cleared to make way for agriculture and settlement. By the 1870s, most of the native flax in the district was gone, replaced by European-style farmland and replanting with introduced trees. Flax, once central to the land’s identity, became part of its foundational history, quickly displaced by the settlers’ drive for cultivation and town building.

Māori in the South Canterbury region, including near Temuka and Arowhenua, likely participated in early 19th-century flax trading with sealers and whalers. Dressed flax fibre was exchanged for tools, clothing, and muskets, connecting local communities to international shipping routes and laying groundwork for colonial trade. This commercial role of flax helped integrate Māori communities into wider economic networks well before formal European settlement took hold.

By the 1870s, Canterbury had over 20 flax mills, some near Temuka, especially at Orari and Kakahu. These mills contributed significantly to local employment and exports, but fluctuating fibre quality, high labour costs, and competition from imported fibres led to the industry’s decline by the late 19th century.

In 1917, Bella MacCallum, a former Timaru Girls' High School student, became New Zealand’s first woman to earn a Doctor of Science degree with a thesis focused on improving the economic potential of Phormium (flax). Her work marked a shift toward scientific approaches to native plant industries, though it came after the local flax economy had largely faded.

The clearing of flax and bush not only transformed the landscape but also prompted new understandings of the need for shelter and biodiversity. Settlers eventually responded by planting European and Australian trees to restore environmental stability and enhance agricultural productivity. Today, while flax is no longer an industrial crop in Temuka, it remains a cultural and ecological treasure, symbolising both the transformation and the resilience of the region's natural heritage.

 

Side Quest: Who were other pioneering woman botanist from Canterbury University College?

 

Bella Dytes Macintosh McCallum (née Cross, 1887–1927)

Born in Timaru and educated at Timaru Girls’ High School, Bella McCallum was one of New Zealand’s earliest women botanists and possibly the first woman to receive a Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) in the country (1917/1919). She graduated BA in 1908 and MA with First Class Honours in 1909, researching halophytes near Christchurch and Timaru. Bella compiled a landmark study on Phormium (NZ flax), now held at Te Papa, and published on plant anatomy and fungi. She married Captain Lancelot Jennings, a fellow scientist and champion tennis player, who was killed in WWI, later preparing his research for posthumous publication. Bella went on to teach and lecture in Britain, taking courses at Cambridge and working at the University of Edinburgh before marrying Dr P. McCallum.

 

Elizabeth Maude Herriott (1882–1936)

Elizabeth Herriott was the first woman appointed to the permanent teaching staff at Canterbury University College, becoming Assistant Lecturer in 1916 and later Lecturer in Biology. She graduated MA in 1905 and collaborated with renowned botanist Leonard Cockayne on Subantarctic flora, establishing herself as a pioneer in plant anatomy. Herriott’s research included studies on giant kelp, freshwater crustaceans, and a notable paper on Hagley Park’s botanical history. She was also active in the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury and contributed biographical essays on early Canterbury botanists. Her teaching career spanned nearly two decades, inspiring generations of students during an era when women in science were rare.

 

Annie Christina Finlayson

Annie Finlayson, born in Liverpool and raised in Christchurch, was among the first wave of women to study botany at Canterbury University College. She earned a BA and MA in 1902, followed later by a BSc in 1923. Her published research, communicated by Professor Charles Chilton, examined the stem structure of leafless New Zealand plants and their photosynthetic tissue. Annie pursued a teaching career, holding positions at Wanganui, West Christchurch District High School, and Waitaki Girls’ High School, contributing to science education at a time when research positions for women were scarce.

 

Eliza Julia Rowe (née Pegg)

Christchurch-born Eliza Rowe excelled academically, graduating BA in 1912 and MA with First Class Honours in Botany in 1913. Her master’s research, published in Transactions of the NZ Institute, investigated sand dune ecology at New Brighton, linking plant anatomy to their environment. Like many early women scientists, Eliza entered teaching, working at Otago Girls’ High School between 1914 and 1916. Her career reflected the limited research opportunities for women while still contributing valuable ecological insights.

 

Lydia Annie Hickmott (née Suckling)

Lydia Hickmott, a Christchurch native, earned her BA in 1911 and MA with Second Class Honours in Botany in 1912. Her thesis examined the ecology of Port Hills forests and the anatomy of native trees and shrubs, later published in Transactions of the NZ Institute. Lydia combined her research interests with teaching, holding posts at Napier Girls’ High School and Auckland Girls’ Grammar, fostering botanical knowledge in young women during the early 20th century.

 

Avice Hill (née Hamilton, 1906–1999)

Avice Hill graduated BSc in 1931 and MSc in Zoology in 1932, one of Canterbury’s early female science graduates. Initially working in entomology for the DSIR and Cawthron Institute, she later became nationally renowned as a herb grower, establishing Canterbury’s first formal herb nursery. In 1968 she co-founded the Canterbury Herb Society and generously gifted her property to create the Avice Hill Community Reserve and Arts and Crafts Centre. Her work bridged science and community, blending botanical expertise with public education and civic generosity.

 

Flora Buchan Murray

Flora Murray, born in Carterton and educated at Christchurch Girls’ High, graduated BA in 1920 and MA with First Class Honours in Botany in 1921, later earning a doctorate (likely from Edinburgh). She researched Port Hills plant ecology and contributed to the botanical study of Riccarton Bush. An early Assistant Lecturer in Biology, Flora later worked in forestry and taught in the UK. Her career, marked by international study, highlighted the growing global connections of women in science during the 1920s.

 

Jean Boag Struthers (née Cunningham, b. 1899)

Jean Struthers grew up in rural Brookside and attended Christchurch Girls’ High before entering Canterbury University College in 1918. Initially drawn to chemistry, she was barred from advanced study by Professor W. P. Evans, who deemed it unsuitable for women. Instead, she pursued botany under Professor Charles Chilton, graduating BA in 1921 and MA with First Class Honours in 1922 with a thesis on Cordyline species. Jean later moved to London, teaching chemistry through the Blitz and becoming Head of Chemistry at Twickenham Girls’ Grammar, before returning to New Zealand to teach at the Correspondence School.

 

- https://bts.nzpcn.org.nz/site/assets/files/22546/cant_2000_34__54-63.pdf

 

Side Quest: Did Bella inspire Ruth?

Bella MacCallum helped pave the way for so many women. I wonder if Ruth Mason was inspired by her determination and achievements as well as her research?

Ruth Mason, born in Auckland in 1913, was the eldest of four children of DulciaRockell and Henry Greathead Rex Mason, a solicitor and prominent Labour cabinet minister. She attended St Cuthbert’s College, becoming dux in 1930, and went on to earn a BA (1934), BSc (1937), and MSc in botany (1938) from Auckland University College. As a keen member of the Auckland University Field Club, she developed a love for fieldwork that combined tramping and camping with the study of natural history.

In 1939, Ruth joined the DSIR’s Botany Division in Wellington as an assistant botanist, where her first task was establishing a seed herbarium. This pioneering work in seed study proved invaluable for taxonomy and ecological research. She famously identified seeds from a moa gizzard at Pyramid Valley in 1940, an early sign of her meticulous skill.

Mason is best known for her research into the ecology of water plants, collecting over 13,000 specimens during her career and developing her own drying and handling techniques. She discovered new species, clarified existing classifications, and published widely. Her scientific curiosity also extended to practical research, including her work during World War II investigating the feasibility of establishing a flax industry near Timaru.

This was her first major research project: an anatomical study of linen flax (Linumusitatissimum) in collaboration with soil scientist J. D. Raeside. The study examined fibre quality in relation to soil type, with cultivation experiments carried out in South Canterbury near Timaru. While based in Timaru, Mason lived temporarily in the town and in her spare time explored the surrounding area, particularly the Washdyke Lagoon. This exploration sparked her enduring interest in wetland and water-plant ecology, a field in which she would later build her reputation.

Her flax study bridged economic botany and ecology, reflecting the wartime need for practical agricultural research while nurturing her scientific curiosity about native habitats. From this experience grew her decades-long dedication to collecting, classifying, and conserving aquatic plant species. Between 1949 and the 1970s, she undertook at least 15 major expeditions across New Zealand, also researching in Australia (1955) and Nepal (1972), constantly refining aquatic plant taxonomy.

Beyond science, Ruth loved music, joining chamber music societies in Wellington and Christchurch, and was active in the Tararua Tramping Club, editing its journal and serving as vice president. Fascinated by words, she corresponded with lexicographer H. W. Orsman, and in later life supported UNICEF and various community organisations.

By breaking barriers and normalising women’s presence in scientific work, MacCallum laid the groundwork for women like Mason to thrive. Ruth’s dedication, innovation, and recognition as the only female life member of the New Zealand Ecological Society (as of 2016) show how MacCallum’s trailblazing career not only advanced botany but also inspired others to build lasting legacies in New Zealand science. Together, their stories reflect a lineage of determination and discovery that connects early pioneers to later generations, grounded in both scientific achievement and shared ties to places like Timaru.

 

Side Quest: Colonial Science and Industry: James Hector, Isaac Featherston, and the 1874 Letters on Harakeke and Flax Innovation

In 1874, James Hector, Director of the Colonial Museum in Wellington, corresponded with Dr Isaac Featherston, New Zealand’s Agent-General in London. Their letters centred on the exchange of industrial samples and technological information between Britain and the colony. Featherston coordinated shipments of framed "Thornium" fabric samples, while also reporting on experimental flax-dressing machinery patented by Messrs Nicholls of Bishopsgate Street, which he had observed in London. This communication took place within the context of New Zealand’s efforts to develop its industrial base and showcase local materials like harakeke (New Zealand flax) to both colonial audiences and British institutions, reflecting the strong links between scientific enterprise, government administration, and imperial trade networks.

These letters document Hector’s formal acknowledgement of these shipments and reports, his forwarding of the flax-dressing experiments to the Colonial Secretary for potential public release, and his note that the lapse of the Plan Commission limited further action. Historically, this correspondence is significant because it ties directly to New Zealand’s 19th-century flax (harakeke) industry, which sought to mechanise fibre extraction and expand exports to Britain.

Harakeke was a vital resource for rope, textiles, and sailcloth, and innovations like the Nicholls machine promised to improve production efficiency. These letters show how the Colonial Museum acted as both a scientific institution and an industrial hub, promoting research, technological exchange, and the economic exploitation of native resources like harakeke within the wider imperial framework.

MA I229206 TePapa Outward letter Dr Featherston full

Left: Outward letter: Doctor Featherston, Agent General London. , Page 276: Phormium flax/Harekeke, 18 February 1874, by Sir James Hector. Te Papa (MU000013/002/0001/0214)
Center and Right: 

Outward letter: Doctor Featherston, Agent General London. , Page 277 - 278: Exhibition 5 May regarding Phormium flax / Harekeke, 18 February 1874, by Sir James Hector. Te Papa (MU000013/002/0001/0215)

 

 

References